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Semiconductor Lithography Principles, Practices, and Materials

Semiconductor lithography is one of the key steps in the manufacturing of integrated silicon-based circuits. In fabricating a semiconductor device such as a transistor, a series of hot processes consisting of vacuum film deposition, oxidations, and dopant implantation are all patterned into microsco...

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Bibliographic Details
Main Author:	Moreau, Wayne M.
Format:	eBook
Language:	English
Published:	New York, NY Springer US 1988, 1988
Edition:	1st ed. 1988
Series:	Microdevices, Physics and Fabrication Technologies
Subjects:	Electrical And Electronic Engineering Electrical Engineering Optical Materials
Online Access:	https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0885-0?nosfx=y
Collection:	Springer Book Archives -2004 - Collection details see MPG.ReNa

Table of Contents:

8-1. Introduction
8-2. Optical Principles
8-3. Contact and Proximity Print
8-4. Projection Print
8-5. Overlay
8-6. Miscellaneous Exposure Techniques
8-7. Photomasks
8-8. Sensitometry
8-9. Outlook
9. Radiation Exposure
9-1. Introduction
9-2. Electron-Beam Performance
9-3. Electron-Beam Exposure Equipment
9-4. Electron-Beam-Resist Interaction
9-4-1. Charging of Resist
9-4-2. Resist Outgassing
9-5. Registration
9-6. Proximity Effects
9-7. Radiation Damage
9-8. X-Ray and Ion-Beam Exposure
9-8-1. X Rays
9-8-2. Ion Beams
9-9. Outlook
10. Developing Resist Images
10-1. Introduction
10-2. General Mechanisms
10-3. PMMA Developer Sensitivity
10-4. Enhancement of R and R0 of PMMA
10-5. Diazoquinone-Novolak Resists
10-5-1. Introduction
10-5-2. Modeling DQN Development
10-5-2-1. Photokinetics of Exposure
10-5-2-2. Kinetics of Dissolution
10-6. Development of Negative Resists
16-1-1. Elementary Considerations
16-1-2. Chemical and Thermal Energy Requirements
16-1-3. Laser Sources
16-2. Gas-Solid Photon-Induced Reactions
16-2-1. Deposition
6-2-3-3. Removal of Contaminants on the Wafer Surface
6-2-4. Detection of Contaminants on the Wafer Surface
6-3. Storage of Cleaned Wafers
6-4. Adhesion Promoters
6-5. Physical Chemistry of Spin Coating
6-5-1. Solvents for Spin Coating
6-5-2. Practical Aspects of Spin Coating
6-6. Other Resist Coating Techniques
6-6-1. Langmuir-Blodgett Films
6-6-2. Gas-Phase Deposition
6-7. Resist Film Thickness Measurements
6-8. Pinholes in Resist Films
6-8-1. Causes of Pinholes
6-8-2. Measurement of Pinholes in Resist Films
6-8-3. Reduction and Control of Pinholes in Resist Films
6-9. Summary and Outlook of Resist Coatings
7. Prebake (Softbake)
7-1. Introduction
7-2. Kinetics of Prebaking
7-3. Physical Changes inPrebaking
7-3-1. Residual Stress Strain
7-3-2. Measurement of Residual Solvent in Prebaked Films
7-4. Prebaking Positive Resists
7-5. Prebake Equipment and Processes
7-6. Summary
8. Optical Exposure
12-7-3. Dual-Layer Plasma Etch Transfer
12-8. High-Temperature Lift-off
12-9. Summary and Outlook of Double-Layer Resists
12-10. Trilayer Resists
12-10-1. Planarizing Layers
12-10-2. Barrier Layers
12-10-3. Image Layer
12-11. Practical MLR Processing
12-12. Metal Deposition and Lift-off
12-12-1. Resist Profile and Lift-off
12-12-2. Resist Thickness and Lift-off
12-13. Lift-ofT Process Control
12-14. Miscellaneous Additive Processes
12-15. Electroplating with Resists
12-16. Ion Implantation Resist Masking
13. Subtractive Etching
13-1. Introduction
13-1-1. General Principles of the Rate of Etching
13-1-2. Phenomenological Mechanisms of Etching
13-2. Liquid Etching
13-2-1. SiO2 Liquid Etching
13-2-2. Wetting, Adhesion, and Undercutting
13-2-3. Surface Primers and Treatments
13-2-4. Stress in Resist Films
13-3. Passivity in Etching SiO2
13-4. Silicon Etching
13-5. Sandwich Etching
13-6. Aluminum Etching
1. Introduction
1-1. Semiconductor Device Manufacturing
1-2. Lithography Processing and Materials
1-3. Lithography Costs and Process Equipment
1-4. Organization of the Book
2. Positive Photoresists
2-1. Introduction
2-2. Diazoquinone Photoresists
2-2-1. General Performance
2-2-2. General Photochemistry and Solubility Properties
2-2-3. Spectral Absorbance
2-2-4. Resins for DQ Resists
2-2-5. Chemical Mechanisms in DQN
2-3. Shelf Life and Quality Control of DQN
2-4. Summary and Outlook on DQN Resists
2-5. Deep-UV Exposure
2-5-1. Optical Systems
2-5-2. Resist Sensitometry
2-5-3. Deep-UV Resists
2-6. PMMA and PMIPK
2-6-1. PMMA
2-6-2. PMIPK
2-6-3. Summary
2-7. Nitroaldehyde Resists
2-8. Photocatalyzed Positive Resists
2-9. Miscellaneous Positive Deep-UV Resists
2-10. Outlook
3. Positive Radiation Resists
3-1. Introduction
3-1-1. Tool Contributions
3-1-2. Resist Considerations
4-3-5. Oxygen Effect in Azide Resists
4-4. Miscellaneous Radical-Based Photoresists
4-5. High-Temperature Negative Photoresists
4-6. Photopolymerization
4-7. Charge Transfer Resists
4-8. Inorganic Resists
4-9. Summary and Outlook
5. Negative Radiation Resists
5-1. Introduction
5-2. X-Ray Resists
5-3. Ion-Beam Resists
5-4. Electron-Beam Resists
5-4-1. Styrene-Based Resists
5-4-2. Epoxy-Based Resists
5-4-3. Allyl-Based Resists
5-4-4. Charge Transfer Resists
5-4-5. Silicone Negative Resists
5-4-6. Miscellaneous Resists
5-5. Two-Component Resists
5-6. Practical Use of Negative Electron-Beam Resists
5-7. Outlook
6. Surface Preparation and Coatin
6-1. Introduction
6-2. Cleaning the Wafer Surface
6-2-1. Contamination and General Consequences
6-2-2. Causes and Mechanisms of Surface Contamination
6-2-3. Removal of Contaminants
6-2-3-1. Clean Rooms
6-2-3-2. Liquid Contamination
3-1-3. High-Energy Radiation Absorption
3-1-4. Radiation Chemical Reactions
3-2. X-Ray Positive Resists
3-2-1. Basic Exposure Tool
3-2-2. X-Ray Positive Resists
3-3. Positive Ion-Beam Resists
3-4. Electron-Beam Positive Resists
3-4-1. Electron-Beam Tool and Process Considerations
3-4-2. One-Component Positive Radiation Resists
3-4-3. Pre-cross-linked PMMA Resist
3-4-3-1. Plasma Stability of PMMA
3-4-3-2. Processing
3-4-3-3. Outlook for PMMA
3-5. Polyolefin Sulfones and Other Electron-Beam Positive Resists
3-6. Practical Positive Resists
3-7. Outlook
4. Negative Photoresists
4-1. Introduction
4-1-1. Chemical Reactions
4-1-2. Exposure and Contrast
4-1-3. Photosensitizers
4-1-4. Commercial Resist Compositions
4-2. Polyvinylcinnamate
4-3. Azide-Sensitized Resists
4-3-1. Azide-Activated Formulations.-4-3-2. Photochemistry of Azides
4-3-3. Rubber and Phenolic Based Systems
4-3-4. Photospeed of Rubber Azide
13-6-1. Etchants for Aluminum
13-6-2. Electroetching
13-6-3. Summary
13-7. Practical Aspects of Wet Etching
13-8. Troubleshooting Etching
13-8-1. Spray versus Static Etching
13-8-2. Other Etching Considerations
13-9. Modeling of Wet Etching
13-10. Outlook of Wet Etching
13-11. Introduction to Gas Etching
13-12. Aluminum Etching
13-12-1. Introduction
13-12-2. Mechanism of A1 Etching
13-12-3. Selectivity of A1 Etching
13-12-4. Residue and Postetch Corrosion
13-12-5. Resist Hardening
13-12-6. PracticalA1 Etching
13-12-7. Summary
13-13. Silicon Etching
13-13-1. Introduction
13-13-2. Gas-Phase Etching
13-13-2-1. Thermal Gas-Phase Etching
13-13-2-2. Plasma Etching
13-13-2-3. Plasma Etch Rates of Radical Systems
13-13-2-4. Plasma Ion Etching
13-13-2-5. Role of Plasma-Deposited Polymers
13-13-2-6. Gas-Phase Recombination Model
13-13-2-7. Role of Electrode in Etching
13-13-2-8. Summary of Plasma Etching Mechanisms
13-13-3. Selectivity
13-13-4. Etch Profiles and Image Bias
13-13-4-1. Etch Profile Factors
13-13-4-2. Ion Transport Model
13-13-5. Uniformity of Plasma Etching
13-13-6. Plasma Etching Contamination
13-13-6-1. Sputtered Metals
13-13-6-2. Insulation Deposits
13-13-6-3. Etch Residues
13-13-6-4. Radiation Damage
13-13-7. Applications of Plasma Processing
13-13-8. Loading Effects
13-13-9. Etch Rate and Endpoint Monitor
13-14. Summary and Outlook of Etching
14. Stripping of Resists
14-1. Introduction
14-2. Liquid Stripping Formulations
14-2-1. Organic Solvent Strippers
14-2-1-1. Simple Solvent Strippers
14-2-1-2. Multiple Component Strippers
14-2-1-3. Surface Wetting Agents
14-2-2. Typical Liquid Strippers
14-3. Water-Based Strippers
14-3-1. Acidic Strippers
14-3-2. Alkaline Strippers
14-4. Practical Aspects of Stripping
14-5. Plasma Gas Stripping of Resists
14-5-1. Reactants of Plasma Stripping
14-5-2. Polymeric Reactants
14-5-3. Oxygen Plasma
14-5-4. Plasma Radiation Field
14-6. Kinetics of Stripping
14-6-1. Gas-Solid Interactions
14-6-2. Activation Energy of Stripping
14-6-3. Monitoring Plasma Stripping
14-6-4. Resist Stripping Rates and Polymer Structure
14-7. Side Effects of Plasma Stripping
14-7-1. Detection of Damage
14-7-2. Prevention and Control of Damage
14-8. Plasma Stripping Apparatus
14-9. Miscellaneous Stripping Techniques
14-10. Applications of Oxygen Plasma to Semiconductor Lithography
14-11. Outlook
15. Process Controls
15-1. General Process Considerations
15-2. Lithographic Process Automation
15-3. Resist Material Controls
15-4. Resist Processing Controls
15-4-1. Exposure Controls
15-4-2. Development Process Controls
15-4-3. Etching Process Controls
15-5. Process Troubleshooting
15-6. Summary
16. Nonresist Processe
16-1. Introduction
10-7. Dry Development
10-7-1. Direct Image Formation
10-7-2. Plasma-Developed Resists
10-7-2-1. Monomer Matrices for Plasma-Developable Resists
10-7-2-2. Polymer Matrices for Plasma Development
10-7-3. Plasma Etching without Development
10-7-4. Outlook for Dry Development
10-8. Practical Development of Resists
11. Postbake
11-1. Introduction
11-2. Physical Chemistry of Postbake
11-2-1. Adhesion
11-2-2. Melting
11-3. Chemical Reactions in Postbake
11-4. Other Methods of Hardening DQN
11-5. Practical Postbaking
11-6. Summary and Outlook
12. Additive Processes
12-1. Introduction
12-2. Single-Layer Resist for Resist Processes
12-3. DQN for Lift-off
12-4. Lift-off with PMMA Films
12-5. Single-Film Lift-off with Shallow-Profile Resists
12-6. Summary and Outlook of Single Films
12-7. Double-Layer Resist
12-7-1. Developer Transfer Bilayer Resist
12-7-2. Optical Dual-Layer Resist

Semiconductor Lithography Principles, Practices, and Materials

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