Semiconductor Lithography Principles, Practices, and Materials
Semiconductor lithography is one of the key steps in the manufacturing of integrated silicon-based circuits. In fabricating a semiconductor device such as a transistor, a series of hot processes consisting of vacuum film deposition, oxidations, and dopant implantation are all patterned into microsco...
Main Author: | |
---|---|
Format: | eBook |
Language: | English |
Published: |
New York, NY
Springer US
1988, 1988
|
Edition: | 1st ed. 1988 |
Series: | Microdevices, Physics and Fabrication Technologies
|
Subjects: | |
Online Access: | |
Collection: | Springer Book Archives -2004 - Collection details see MPG.ReNa |
Table of Contents:
- 8-1. Introduction
- 8-2. Optical Principles
- 8-3. Contact and Proximity Print
- 8-4. Projection Print
- 8-5. Overlay
- 8-6. Miscellaneous Exposure Techniques
- 8-7. Photomasks
- 8-8. Sensitometry
- 8-9. Outlook
- 9. Radiation Exposure
- 9-1. Introduction
- 9-2. Electron-Beam Performance
- 9-3. Electron-Beam Exposure Equipment
- 9-4. Electron-Beam-Resist Interaction
- 9-4-1. Charging of Resist
- 9-4-2. Resist Outgassing
- 9-5. Registration
- 9-6. Proximity Effects
- 9-7. Radiation Damage
- 9-8. X-Ray and Ion-Beam Exposure
- 9-8-1. X Rays
- 9-8-2. Ion Beams
- 9-9. Outlook
- 10. Developing Resist Images
- 10-1. Introduction
- 10-2. General Mechanisms
- 10-3. PMMA Developer Sensitivity
- 10-4. Enhancement of R and R0 of PMMA
- 10-5. Diazoquinone-Novolak Resists
- 10-5-1. Introduction
- 10-5-2. Modeling DQN Development
- 10-5-2-1. Photokinetics of Exposure
- 10-5-2-2. Kinetics of Dissolution
- 10-6. Development of Negative Resists
- 16-1-1. Elementary Considerations
- 16-1-2. Chemical and Thermal Energy Requirements
- 16-1-3. Laser Sources
- 16-2. Gas-Solid Photon-Induced Reactions
- 16-2-1. Deposition
- 6-2-3-3. Removal of Contaminants on the Wafer Surface
- 6-2-4. Detection of Contaminants on the Wafer Surface
- 6-3. Storage of Cleaned Wafers
- 6-4. Adhesion Promoters
- 6-5. Physical Chemistry of Spin Coating
- 6-5-1. Solvents for Spin Coating
- 6-5-2. Practical Aspects of Spin Coating
- 6-6. Other Resist Coating Techniques
- 6-6-1. Langmuir-Blodgett Films
- 6-6-2. Gas-Phase Deposition
- 6-7. Resist Film Thickness Measurements
- 6-8. Pinholes in Resist Films
- 6-8-1. Causes of Pinholes
- 6-8-2. Measurement of Pinholes in Resist Films
- 6-8-3. Reduction and Control of Pinholes in Resist Films
- 6-9. Summary and Outlook of Resist Coatings
- 7. Prebake (Softbake)
- 7-1. Introduction
- 7-2. Kinetics of Prebaking
- 7-3. Physical Changes inPrebaking
- 7-3-1. Residual Stress Strain
- 7-3-2. Measurement of Residual Solvent in Prebaked Films
- 7-4. Prebaking Positive Resists
- 7-5. Prebake Equipment and Processes
- 7-6. Summary
- 8. Optical Exposure
- 12-7-3. Dual-Layer Plasma Etch Transfer
- 12-8. High-Temperature Lift-off
- 12-9. Summary and Outlook of Double-Layer Resists
- 12-10. Trilayer Resists
- 12-10-1. Planarizing Layers
- 12-10-2. Barrier Layers
- 12-10-3. Image Layer
- 12-11. Practical MLR Processing
- 12-12. Metal Deposition and Lift-off
- 12-12-1. Resist Profile and Lift-off
- 12-12-2. Resist Thickness and Lift-off
- 12-13. Lift-ofT Process Control
- 12-14. Miscellaneous Additive Processes
- 12-15. Electroplating with Resists
- 12-16. Ion Implantation Resist Masking
- 13. Subtractive Etching
- 13-1. Introduction
- 13-1-1. General Principles of the Rate of Etching
- 13-1-2. Phenomenological Mechanisms of Etching
- 13-2. Liquid Etching
- 13-2-1. SiO2 Liquid Etching
- 13-2-2. Wetting, Adhesion, and Undercutting
- 13-2-3. Surface Primers and Treatments
- 13-2-4. Stress in Resist Films
- 13-3. Passivity in Etching SiO2
- 13-4. Silicon Etching
- 13-5. Sandwich Etching
- 13-6. Aluminum Etching
- 1. Introduction
- 1-1. Semiconductor Device Manufacturing
- 1-2. Lithography Processing and Materials
- 1-3. Lithography Costs and Process Equipment
- 1-4. Organization of the Book
- 2. Positive Photoresists
- 2-1. Introduction
- 2-2. Diazoquinone Photoresists
- 2-2-1. General Performance
- 2-2-2. General Photochemistry and Solubility Properties
- 2-2-3. Spectral Absorbance
- 2-2-4. Resins for DQ Resists
- 2-2-5. Chemical Mechanisms in DQN
- 2-3. Shelf Life and Quality Control of DQN
- 2-4. Summary and Outlook on DQN Resists
- 2-5. Deep-UV Exposure
- 2-5-1. Optical Systems
- 2-5-2. Resist Sensitometry
- 2-5-3. Deep-UV Resists
- 2-6. PMMA and PMIPK
- 2-6-1. PMMA
- 2-6-2. PMIPK
- 2-6-3. Summary
- 2-7. Nitroaldehyde Resists
- 2-8. Photocatalyzed Positive Resists
- 2-9. Miscellaneous Positive Deep-UV Resists
- 2-10. Outlook
- 3. Positive Radiation Resists
- 3-1. Introduction
- 3-1-1. Tool Contributions
- 3-1-2. Resist Considerations
- 4-3-5. Oxygen Effect in Azide Resists
- 4-4. Miscellaneous Radical-Based Photoresists
- 4-5. High-Temperature Negative Photoresists
- 4-6. Photopolymerization
- 4-7. Charge Transfer Resists
- 4-8. Inorganic Resists
- 4-9. Summary and Outlook
- 5. Negative Radiation Resists
- 5-1. Introduction
- 5-2. X-Ray Resists
- 5-3. Ion-Beam Resists
- 5-4. Electron-Beam Resists
- 5-4-1. Styrene-Based Resists
- 5-4-2. Epoxy-Based Resists
- 5-4-3. Allyl-Based Resists
- 5-4-4. Charge Transfer Resists
- 5-4-5. Silicone Negative Resists
- 5-4-6. Miscellaneous Resists
- 5-5. Two-Component Resists
- 5-6. Practical Use of Negative Electron-Beam Resists
- 5-7. Outlook
- 6. Surface Preparation and Coatin
- 6-1. Introduction
- 6-2. Cleaning the Wafer Surface
- 6-2-1. Contamination and General Consequences
- 6-2-2. Causes and Mechanisms of Surface Contamination
- 6-2-3. Removal of Contaminants
- 6-2-3-1. Clean Rooms
- 6-2-3-2. Liquid Contamination
- 3-1-3. High-Energy Radiation Absorption
- 3-1-4. Radiation Chemical Reactions
- 3-2. X-Ray Positive Resists
- 3-2-1. Basic Exposure Tool
- 3-2-2. X-Ray Positive Resists
- 3-3. Positive Ion-Beam Resists
- 3-4. Electron-Beam Positive Resists
- 3-4-1. Electron-Beam Tool and Process Considerations
- 3-4-2. One-Component Positive Radiation Resists
- 3-4-3. Pre-cross-linked PMMA Resist
- 3-4-3-1. Plasma Stability of PMMA
- 3-4-3-2. Processing
- 3-4-3-3. Outlook for PMMA
- 3-5. Polyolefin Sulfones and Other Electron-Beam Positive Resists
- 3-6. Practical Positive Resists
- 3-7. Outlook
- 4. Negative Photoresists
- 4-1. Introduction
- 4-1-1. Chemical Reactions
- 4-1-2. Exposure and Contrast
- 4-1-3. Photosensitizers
- 4-1-4. Commercial Resist Compositions
- 4-2. Polyvinylcinnamate
- 4-3. Azide-Sensitized Resists
- 4-3-1. Azide-Activated Formulations.-4-3-2. Photochemistry of Azides
- 4-3-3. Rubber and Phenolic Based Systems
- 4-3-4. Photospeed of Rubber Azide
- 13-6-1. Etchants for Aluminum
- 13-6-2. Electroetching
- 13-6-3. Summary
- 13-7. Practical Aspects of Wet Etching
- 13-8. Troubleshooting Etching
- 13-8-1. Spray versus Static Etching
- 13-8-2. Other Etching Considerations
- 13-9. Modeling of Wet Etching
- 13-10. Outlook of Wet Etching
- 13-11. Introduction to Gas Etching
- 13-12. Aluminum Etching
- 13-12-1. Introduction
- 13-12-2. Mechanism of A1 Etching
- 13-12-3. Selectivity of A1 Etching
- 13-12-4. Residue and Postetch Corrosion
- 13-12-5. Resist Hardening
- 13-12-6. PracticalA1 Etching
- 13-12-7. Summary
- 13-13. Silicon Etching
- 13-13-1. Introduction
- 13-13-2. Gas-Phase Etching
- 13-13-2-1. Thermal Gas-Phase Etching
- 13-13-2-2. Plasma Etching
- 13-13-2-3. Plasma Etch Rates of Radical Systems
- 13-13-2-4. Plasma Ion Etching
- 13-13-2-5. Role of Plasma-Deposited Polymers
- 13-13-2-6. Gas-Phase Recombination Model
- 13-13-2-7. Role of Electrode in Etching
- 13-13-2-8. Summary of Plasma Etching Mechanisms
- 13-13-3. Selectivity
- 13-13-4. Etch Profiles and Image Bias
- 13-13-4-1. Etch Profile Factors
- 13-13-4-2. Ion Transport Model
- 13-13-5. Uniformity of Plasma Etching
- 13-13-6. Plasma Etching Contamination
- 13-13-6-1. Sputtered Metals
- 13-13-6-2. Insulation Deposits
- 13-13-6-3. Etch Residues
- 13-13-6-4. Radiation Damage
- 13-13-7. Applications of Plasma Processing
- 13-13-8. Loading Effects
- 13-13-9. Etch Rate and Endpoint Monitor
- 13-14. Summary and Outlook of Etching
- 14. Stripping of Resists
- 14-1. Introduction
- 14-2. Liquid Stripping Formulations
- 14-2-1. Organic Solvent Strippers
- 14-2-1-1. Simple Solvent Strippers
- 14-2-1-2. Multiple Component Strippers
- 14-2-1-3. Surface Wetting Agents
- 14-2-2. Typical Liquid Strippers
- 14-3. Water-Based Strippers
- 14-3-1. Acidic Strippers
- 14-3-2. Alkaline Strippers
- 14-4. Practical Aspects of Stripping
- 14-5. Plasma Gas Stripping of Resists
- 14-5-1. Reactants of Plasma Stripping
- 14-5-2. Polymeric Reactants
- 14-5-3. Oxygen Plasma
- 14-5-4. Plasma Radiation Field
- 14-6. Kinetics of Stripping
- 14-6-1. Gas-Solid Interactions
- 14-6-2. Activation Energy of Stripping
- 14-6-3. Monitoring Plasma Stripping
- 14-6-4. Resist Stripping Rates and Polymer Structure
- 14-7. Side Effects of Plasma Stripping
- 14-7-1. Detection of Damage
- 14-7-2. Prevention and Control of Damage
- 14-8. Plasma Stripping Apparatus
- 14-9. Miscellaneous Stripping Techniques
- 14-10. Applications of Oxygen Plasma to Semiconductor Lithography
- 14-11. Outlook
- 15. Process Controls
- 15-1. General Process Considerations
- 15-2. Lithographic Process Automation
- 15-3. Resist Material Controls
- 15-4. Resist Processing Controls
- 15-4-1. Exposure Controls
- 15-4-2. Development Process Controls
- 15-4-3. Etching Process Controls
- 15-5. Process Troubleshooting
- 15-6. Summary
- 16. Nonresist Processe
- 16-1. Introduction
- 10-7. Dry Development
- 10-7-1. Direct Image Formation
- 10-7-2. Plasma-Developed Resists
- 10-7-2-1. Monomer Matrices for Plasma-Developable Resists
- 10-7-2-2. Polymer Matrices for Plasma Development
- 10-7-3. Plasma Etching without Development
- 10-7-4. Outlook for Dry Development
- 10-8. Practical Development of Resists
- 11. Postbake
- 11-1. Introduction
- 11-2. Physical Chemistry of Postbake
- 11-2-1. Adhesion
- 11-2-2. Melting
- 11-3. Chemical Reactions in Postbake
- 11-4. Other Methods of Hardening DQN
- 11-5. Practical Postbaking
- 11-6. Summary and Outlook
- 12. Additive Processes
- 12-1. Introduction
- 12-2. Single-Layer Resist for Resist Processes
- 12-3. DQN for Lift-off
- 12-4. Lift-off with PMMA Films
- 12-5. Single-Film Lift-off with Shallow-Profile Resists
- 12-6. Summary and Outlook of Single Films
- 12-7. Double-Layer Resist
- 12-7-1. Developer Transfer Bilayer Resist
- 12-7-2. Optical Dual-Layer Resist