1 “..., at school or in the workplace. When PISA assessed 15-year-olds' reading literacy for the first time, in 2000...”

2

3 “... in normal times over a year of schooling. This paper shows how international data can be used to investigate...”

4 “... cycles, this paper explores changes in the share of resilient students over time (2006-2015); highlights...”

5 “... scores in PISA have changed over time. Indeed, increases in coverage can lead to an underestimation...”